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Constructivism

In behavioural theories knowledge is viewed as nothing more than passive, largely automatic responses to external factors in the environment. In cognitive theories knowledge is viewed as abstract symbolic representations in the head of individuals. In the constructivistic theories knowledge is viewed as a constructed entity made by each and every learner through a learning process. Knowledge can thus not be transmitted from one person to the other, it will have to be (re)constructed by each person. This means that the view of knowledge differs from the 'knowledge as given and absolute' views of behaviourism and cognitivism.

Learning is therefore not just about memorising facts but the active process of integrating new experiences and information with existing concepts. Rather than simply absorbing ideas communicated to them by teachers, students take those ideas and assimilate them with their pre-existing notions and experience to modify their knowledge and understanding in a more complex, complete and refined way. Teaching is the process which supports this construction and reconstruction of new knowledge rather than the communication of knowledge.

There are a number of theories on how this construction of knowledge occurs however they all focus on either the individual or the group as the means by which we construct knowledge. Some theorists hold that knowledge is constructed by the individual through their own interpretations and others hold that it is constructed through social interaction among individuals where their dialogue leads to a shared interpretation.

Those contributing to constructivism include Dewey (social constructivism), Vygotsky (scaffolding and the zone of proximal development), Piaget (stages of development), Bruner (discovery learning), Papert (microworlds), Seely Brown (cognitive apprenticeships), Vanderbilt’s cognition and technology group (anchored instruction), Spiro and others (flexibility theory and radical constructivism) and Gardner (multiple intelligences).

A constructivist framework based on these theories holds the following principles:

Learners bring unique prior knowledge, experience, and beliefs to a learning situation.
Learning is internally controlled and mediated.
Knowledge is constructed in multiple ways, through a variety of tools, resources, experiences, and contexts.
Learning is a process of accommodation, assimilation, or rejection to construct new conceptual structures, meaningful representations, or new mental modes.
Learning is both an active and reflective process.
Social interaction introduces multiple perspectives through reflection, collaboration, negotiation, and shared meaning.

(SEDL 1999, http://www.sedl.org/pubs/tec26/intro2c.html)

As constructivism is a collection of theories of learning and not a method of teaching, the means by which teachers provide environments that support the ways students learn varies. However central to this philosophy is the idea that by placing the focus on the internal construction of knowledge (either individually or socially) the emphasis in the classroom shifts from the teacher to the student. Teachers need to do more than deliver information to students: they need to design activities which facilitate students’ engaging with and making sense of the content. Learners must be given the opportunity to build on prior knowledge, beliefs and experiences and encouraged to be autonomous and take initiative.

A constructivist classroom tends to focus on learning in context and collaboration. Students are asked to solve realistic and meaningful problems which demonstrate real-life connections by associating the concepts being taught with a real-life activity or event. Students are actively involved in the process of gathering information, analysing information, and using information to make informed decisions that relate to life. Because they focus on activities that require students to find solutions to problems the methods used in a constructivist classroom tend to be problem-based learning, project-based learning, cooperative/collaborative learning, discovery learning etc. Students are encouraged to reflect on the process of learning as well as the product of that process.

For suggestions on how to integrate constructivist practices into your teaching you might like to read the TAP into Learning series (http://www.sedl.org/tap/newsletters/) . As a start they suggest you:

begin with a problem or issue that your students find relevant and meaningful and that will encourage their autonomy and initiative
provide students with the opportunity for interdisciplinary exploration
develop tasks that require higher-order thinking
use raw data and real-world data from primary sources (Burns 1998, p. 7)

Alexander and Boud (2001) suggest that one of the most important roles of teachers is designing activities which provide opportunities for students to:

find a bridge between what they already know, and what they have read, heard or seen;
reflect on the ways in which their individual understanding aligns with that of the teacher, and the ways in which it is different; and
engage in the social construction of understanding so that the learners’ own experiences are interpreted and tested against those of others, resulting in the construction and reconstruction of ideas and meaning.

The online environment provides opportunities for exploration and highly creative and individualised self-expression and for individualised learning, allowing students to progress at their own pace. It gives students access to a wide range of raw and real-world data which engages students in authentic learning tasks. It allows the student to be actively engaged with their learning and be at the centre of the process. These features of the online environment suggest that online learning activities designed using constructivist strategies highly effective.

Needs addressed by constructivism

Making skills more relevant to students’ backgrounds and experiences by anchoring learning tasks in meaningful, authentic, highly visual situations
Addressing motivation problems through interactive activities in which students must play active rather than passive roles
Teaching students how to work together to solve problems through group-based, cooperative learning activities
Emphasizing engaging, motivational activities that require higher-level skills and prerequisite lower-level skills at the same time. (Roblyer & Edwards 2000, p. 51)

Constructivist learning models tend to:

Focus on learning through posing problems, exploring possible answers, and developing products and presentations.
Pursue global goals that specify general abilities such as problem solving and research skills
Stress more group work than individualized work
Emphasize alternative learning and assessment methods: exploration of open-ended questions and scenarios, doing research and developing products; assessment by student portfolios, performance checklists, and tests with open-ended questions; and descriptive narratives written by teachers. (Roblyer & Edwards 2000, p. 53)

References

Alexander, S. & Boud, D. 2001. Learners still learn from experience when online. In J. Stephenson (ed.) Teaching & Learning Online: Pedagogies for New Technologies. Kogan Page, London.

Burns, M. (ed). 1998. TAP into Learning, vol. 1, no. 1. SEDL. (online)

http://www.sedl.org/pubs/tapinto/v1n1.pdf [11 October 2001]

Roblyer, M. D. & Edwards, J. 2000. Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching. 2^nd edn. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddler River, New Jersey.

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NSW HSC Online Professional Development Node

Constructivism

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