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Home > Modern History > International Studies in Peace and Conflict > The Cold War 1945-1991 > Crises of the Cold War

The Cold War 1945–1991

Crises of the Cold War

Principal focus: Students investigate key features and issues of ONE International Study in Peace and Conflict.

Outcomes

Students:

H1.1 describe the role of key features, issues, individuals, groups and events of selected twentieth-century studies
H1.2 analyse and evaluate the role of key features, issues, individuals, groups and events of selected twentieth-century studies
H2.1 explain forces and ideas and assess their significance in contributing to change and continuity during the twentieth century
H4.1 use historical terms and concepts appropriately

Extract from Modern History Stage 6 Syllabus Board of Studies NSW 2004.

Key features and issues

• impact of crises on changing superpower relations

Students learn about:

From this tutorial you will learn about the major crises of the Cold War and what effect these had on superpower relations. The following crises illustrate how events could both reflect the nature of the Cold War and helped shape its course.

Berlin 1948 – 1989

The city of Berlin epitomised the Cold War conflict. The city was not only of strategic importance in the centre of Europe, but an ideological symbol of power that neither superpower was willing to relinquish.

Berlin Blockade 194

Background
As the Allies converged in the heart of Germany in WWII, it soon became apparent that the end of the war would not usher in a prolonged period of peace. Both the Russians and the US and its allies, rushed to control the power vacuum that was once the Nazi empire.

The war time conferences saw the Allies divide Germany up amongst themselves into areas of control. Berlin too, as the capital of Germany was also sub-divided. As the post-war euphoria subsided, the dispute over the control Germany and Berlin became apparent. The US wanted to install a system of open markets and democracy into the defeated nation, whilst the Russians wanted to spread the communist revolution into central Europe.

Conflict
The first major crisis arrived on the 1st April 1948 when the Russians placed a blockade of all road and rail into Allied controlled West Berlin. The reasons for this were:

• The Russians wanted to swallow the small refuge of capitalism within its communist empire.
• There was a great disparity between East and West Berlin. The Soviet was losing people, capital and face.
• By cutting off vital infrastructure, the Russians felt they could starve the Allies out of Germany.

It seemed that confrontation might be inevitable, but neither side wanted to appear as the aggressor to the rest of the world. The Allies’ solution was to fly supplies into the fortified region, and impose a ‘counter-blockade’ on eastern Berlin. Codenamed operation ‘Vittles’ the Allies flew over 277 728 flights and transported over 8000 tonnes of supplies.

Resolution
On the 12 May 1949 the Russians lifted the blockade. The Russians realised that East Berlin was suffering more, as a result of the Allies blockade, than the West was. The effects of the conflict were

1. The Allies maintained a stronghold in communist East Germany
2. The West received a psychological boost whilst the Russians were humiliated

Questions to consider:

a) Why do you think neither side used force against the other?
b) What were the consequences of the Berlin blockade?

The Berlin Wall 1961

Background
With Allied backing, the capitalist West Berlin began to prosper whilst the communist East floundered. Increasing, people from East Germany and other soviets satellites were fleeing into West Berlin and then to the west. These people were often skilled workers which East Germany could least afford to lose.

Conflict
In an effort to stop this migration, the Soviets erected a barbed wire fence through the city. A few months later a more permanent wall was built and the city of Berlin was physically divided.

Resolution
The wall stood until 1989, when it was finally torn down in what is generally regarded as the symbolic fall of communism.

Question to consider:

c) President Kennedy did not act to prevent the city from being divided. What were the consequences of this decision?

Korea 1950 – 1953

Korea illustrated the US policies of ‘containment’ and ‘roll-back’ and announced China as a new player in the Cold War.

Background
After WWII Korea, like Germany, was divided between US and Russian control. Korea which had been under the control of Japan during the war was split along the 38th parallel; communist controlled North Korea and US controlled South Korea.

Conflict
In June 1950 the communist North Korea attacked the South. The USA responded by encouraging the United Nations to become involved. With the Russian boycott of the UN due to its prohibition of Chinese membership, a bill was passed to involve the UN in the conflict.
On the 15th September UN troops landed in South Korea and quickly pushed North Korea back over its borders. The UN continued to push into North Korea until China entered the war and stopped the advance.

Resolution
By July 1951 the front line was once again near the 38th parallel and a cease fire was called. The war showed:

• The US were prepared to go beyond their policy of ‘containment’ of communism and initiate a policy of ‘rollback’ as they tried to push into North Korea.
• Illustrated the military strength of China as they stopped the ‘rollback’ operation. There could be no doubt that the ‘Cold War’ had moved beyond a ‘bi-polar’ conflict between the Soviet and US, but was now a world conflict.

Questions to consider:

d) Why do you think the Korean War did not become a general war?
e) What did the Korean War cost the US?

Formosan Straights 1955 and 1958

The Formosa Straights incidents illustrated that communism was not a unified movement and that the alliance between China and the Soviet Union was a fragile one.

Background
With the emergence of China as a new communist superpower, the Cold War spread to new areas. China, under Chairman Mao Zedong, decided to annexe the islands of Quemoy and Matsu from Formosa (Taiwan).

Conflict
The Chinese began shelling the island of the Quemoy. The US threatened to bomb Chinese military installations and even use atomic weapons. Mao expected to receive support from his communist counterpart in Russia, Nikita Khrushchev. However, the Russians refused to give their unquestionable support.

Resolution
Without the total support of the Russians, the Chinese backed down. This strained Chinese-Soviet relations to the point that they never presented a united front against the West. For the US it was a victory for their policy of ‘brinkmanship’; going to the brink of war to achieve one’s aims.

Question to consider:

f) Research the reasons to explain why the Soviets did not give total support to China.

Suez Canal 1956

The Suez incident saw the end of the traditional alliance between the US, Britain and France.

Background
The Suez Canal is a major shipping lane that was originally controlled and built by the British and French. In 1954 Egyptian ruler Gamal Abdel Nasser announced the nationalisation of the canal. In response the British and French supported an Israelis attack on Egypt on the 29 October 1956.

Conflict
The Israelis, French and British quickly captured the Sinai Peninsula and plans to invade the whole of Egypt were underway. However, the US intervened, condemning the attack and French and British involvement. It promised aid to Egypt and other Arab nations. The Americans were keen to avoid conflict with pan-Arab states and have closer ties within the Middle East to defend against communism and gain greater access to the area’s large oil reserves..

Resolution
The British and French backed down and withdrew from Egypt. They were both humiliated and tensions between the US, France and Britain, traditional allies, escalated. Like the rift between China and Russia over Formosa, the Suez incident signalled a break-up of the western Allies.

Question to consider:

g) What were the consequences of US strategies in the Suez incident?

Vietnam 1954-1975

Vietnam illustrated the extent to which the US was prepared to go to stop the perceived spread of communism.

Background
Vietnam had been a French colony until their withdrawal in 1954. In their absence Vietnam was divided by the subsequent peace conference held in Geneva into North and South regions. North Vietnam became came under the patronage of communist Russia whilst US backed South Vietnam was anti-communist. Despite plans in the peace conference, the country failed to unify.

Gradually nationalistic forces that aimed to unify the country began to encroach into the south. The Americans, concerned this was a communist threat felt obliged to follow their policy of containment and began to support the south with advisors, weapons and ultimately troops.

Conflict
The conflict intensified and US involvement escalated. Their efforts to eradicate the militant Vietcong were largely hampered by ‘guerrilla warfare’ in the dense jungles of Vietnam did not allow the US fully utilise its technological superiority. The war dragged on for years and casualties grew rapidly on both sides.

Resolution
The US, finally due to mounting pressure at home and a new era of detente between the superpowers, were compelled to withdraw in 1973. The war illustrated that the US policy of containment was not infallible

Question to consider:

h) What impact did the Vietnam War have on the development of the Cold War?

Hungary 1956

Hungary illustrated the extent Russia would go to maintain its satellite nations.

Background
Hungary, a communist satellite nation of the Soviet Union since 1945 was increasingly moving towards civil unrest. A harsh repressive regime, the Hungarians looked to loosen Russian influence by introducing a number of liberal reforms and severing some of its ties to the USSR such as the Warsaw Pact.

Conflict
For their part the Russians refused to concede these reforms and looked to crush any insurrection. Russia killed thousands of protestors including Hungary’s national hero and reformist Prime Minster Imre Nagy.

Resolution
The insurrection was crushed and Hungary remained under Soviet influence. The incident showed the lengths Russia would go to maintain its sphere of influence.

Questions to consider:

i) Why did Russia interfere in Hungary? Was it simply for reasons of national, self-interest? Or were there other motives as well?

Cuba 1962

Cuba is largely remembered as the height of the Cold War. The conflict illustrated the power politics and catastrophic dangers that the Cold War encapsulated.

Background
Cuba had been a communist state since 1959 when a young revolutionary named Fidel Castro took control. In 1961 the US helped arm and direct a failed military coup by pro-capitalist reformers in the infamous ‘Bay of Pigs’ invasion. In response, Cuba severed ties with the US and began to accept Soviet aid. Relations between the Soviet and Cuba continued to improve with increased military and defence cooperation. The US felt threatened by this new defiant communist nation on its doorstep.

Conflict
In 1962 US spy planes photographed what appeared to be military complexes and missile silos in Cuba. They also learnt of a convoy of Soviet missiles that were being shipped to the small communist outpost. America demanded the ships turn back and the bases dismantled. The scene was set when the US set up a blockade of Cuba and waited as the Soviets ships approached, warning they would be fired upon if they attempted to reach Cuba.

Resolution
The Russian ships slowed, before turning back. Khrushchev then offered to remove the existing military complexes in Cuba if similar American complexes in Turkey were dismantled. US President Kennedy accepted.
The Crisis was the closest the world has come to nuclear warfare. Ultimately it was a victory for Kennedy and his ‘brinkmanship’ policy. For the Soviet it was largely another embarrassing defeat.

Questions to consider:

j) Do you think that the resolution of the Cuban crisis should be regarded as a defeat for Russia?

Czechoslovakia 1968

Czechoslovakia again showed the lengths the to which Russia would go to maintain its influence

Background
Like Hungary, Czechoslovakia was a communist satellite that increasing unstable and resentful of the Soviet rulership. In 1968 leader Alexander Dubcek announced new reform aimed at widening personal freedoms and economic independence. As the reforms were not concerning foreign policy the Czechoslovakian government felt confident of Soviet consent.

Conflict
Russia however believed these measures would set a dangerous precedent and sent 650 000 troops into Czechoslovakia. They arrested Dubcek and banned all reforms.

Resolution
The unrest in Czechoslovakia again shows the discontent many Soviet satellites felt, whilst the Soviet response shows the lengths Russia would go to maintain its sphere of influence in the region.

Question to consider:

k) Which in your view was the most significant crisis affecting superpower relations in the period 1948 to 1962?

The Middle East

The Middle East conflicts signalled a new arena that the Cold War would be played in against the backdrop of rising Islamic fundamentalism.

Background
The Middle East, with its extensive oil reserves, was of strategic importance during the Cold War for both the Soviets and Americans.

Conflict
Six Day War – 10th June 1967 US ally Israel invades Egypt with American arms and gains large areas of land. Also attacks Syria, Jordan and Iraq. Russia supports Syria and Egypt. Hatred for Israel intensified. This threatens American oil interests.

Yom Kippur War – 6th October 1973 Egypt attacks Israel. America backs Israel and Russia continues to back Egypt. Israel was eventually victorious.

Resolution
Both conflicts saw Russia and the US back opposing sides. However, both were largely unwilling to become heavily involved in the conflict due to the new détente policies and their need to ensure oil supplies.

Question to consider:

l) Explain in detail why the Middle East was so important to the Soviets and the Americans?

Afghanistan 1979

The failed war in Afghanistan epitomised the declining power and influence of the Soviet Union and signalled the end of the all powerful communist bloc.

Background
Afghanistan was a large Muslim nation in the Middle East. The US, Russia and China all had vested interests in the region due to its oil. Afghanistan was also becoming increasingly unstable with an increase in Islamic fundamentalism. The Soviets especially felt the need to control the area, as it felt the rise in Islamic fundamentalism might infiltrate into the large Muslim populations it contained within its empire.

Conflict
On the 25 December 1979, the Soviet invaded Afghanistan in order to install a pro- Soviet puppet government. Over 100 000 Soviet troops swept into the nation.

Resolution
As a result the US issued a formal note of protest to effectively end the Détente period between the Soviet and US. The US withdrew from the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow and refused to ratify the SALT II treaty. America imposed economic sanctions on the USSR, aided the Afghanistan rebels (the Mujahidin) with weapons and resources and began to increase weapons production.
As for the Soviets, they were dragged into a prolonged struggle throughout Afghanistan which some refer to as ‘Russia’s Vietnam’. Humiliated, Russia ultimately withdrew in 1990. Faced with another escalation of the Cold War it could ill afford, the Afghanistan crisis contributed to the ultimate collapse of Soviet communism.

Questions to consider:

m) Assess the importance of the American fear of communism in the development of any ONE Cold War crisis between 1948 and 1989.
n) Which crisis posed the greatest threat of a nuclear war? Support your answer.