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Barbed Wired Trenches

 

Sources and the Battle of the Somme

Valda Rigg
Australian History Museum,
Macquarie University.


 

This tutorial:

From this tutorial you will learn about the reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front and attempts to break it, the nature of trench warfare, recruitment, censorship and propaganda and reactions following the Somme.

Content

The Battle of the Somme (1st July until mid­November 1916) is significant for several reasons. It is almost the mid-point of the war, there was enormous loss of life for little territorial gain, and there were several important consequences on the war and home fronts. The following points are brief summaries to assist in the analysis and evaluation of the source. Further reading should be undertaken (see Bibliography).

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Background to the battle

By the end of 1915, the stalemate on the western front had become a deadlock. Despite attempts on both sides of the frontline there had been no breakthrough and there was no end in sight. The German offensive to capture Verdun, begun in February of 1916, had not succeeded, but although Verdun was saved, by June the French armies were exhausted and loss of life was high. General Joffre, French Commander in Chief, persuaded General Haig, Commander in Chief of the British and Imperial Forces, to bring forward his planned offensive from 1st August to 1st July, 1916.

Although morale still held firm on the British home front, the politicians and generals sensed a great victory was needed to shore up support for their conduct of the war. Haig's 'Great Push' on the Somme was his first major offensive since his promotion to Commander in Chief in December 1915 and his reputation was at stake.

The Battle

The Battle of the Somme was actually a series of battles covering a 40 kilometre front, with the British troops (including the Australians, who were still under British command) fighting to the north, and the French fighting to the south of the Somme River. The offensive was preceded by a five-day bombardment, which was supposed to flatten German barbed wire and destroy German defence posts. Although the British pounded German positions with almost two million shells they failed to destroy the entanglements of wire or to impact on the German troops who were protected in deep underground fortifications. Furthermore, the intense and prolonged bombardment churned up the ground, making it difficult for the infantry to advance with speed. It also warned the Germans that an offensive was about to be mounted against them. When the shelling stopped they were well prepared for the British infantry advance on the morning of 1st July. The Germans were able to quickly mount their machine guns and use them with deadly effect as the British soldiers walked towards them in a slow and rigid formation, in keeping with the order that 'the whole advance must be carried out as a drill'.

Although the French achieved their objective, at a cost of 7000 casualties, the British were not successful and on the first day alone they sustained 60 000 casualties, including 20 000 dead.

Despite this disastrous start for the British, Haig persisted with his strategy of attrition for another four and a half months until Beaumont Hamel was captured in mid-November. It had taken several months to achieve what was supposed to have taken only several weeks. General Haig's "Great Push" on the Somme had become the Great Slaughter, where British, French and German dead amounted to over a million.

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Using the source

Magazine - "Great Push"  This is the cover of the first edition of a magazine series that was produced on the British home front while the battle was in progress on the western front. At the same time as the magazine was being promoted there was also a War Office film being screened to the public called The Battle of the Somme.

As a source this magazine is a useful primary source because it gives us information and pictures that were taken at the time, and is an example of home front propaganda. However, if we want a balanced view of the battle it is not reliable.

To understand why it is not reliable there are several aspects to examine. We should begin by thinking about its author or producer, that is, its origin:

The magazine was produced by a British publishing company with the cooperation of the British authorities. The company needed War Office photographs to support its claim to be 'an authoritative work' using 'official pictures', so it is unlikely that the magazine will be critical of the Government at home, or the Army's efforts on the warfront.

We must think about whom the magazine is aimed at, i.e. its audience:

The special edition magazine (and the film) is aimed at the public to allay concerns about the financial and human cost of the war. The magazine is part of the authorities' propaganda effort to convince the public that the sacrifices on the warfront and at home are worthwhile.

To appreciate why the authorities believe this is necessary we should consider the historical background to the magazine's publication, i.e. its context:

The magazine was published in October 1916. Far from being "all over by Christmas" of 1914, the war was into its third year. Germany had not been defeated, hundreds of thousands of men had been killed or injured and the British government had introduced conscription earlier in 1916 to enlist even more men. In April the Easter Uprising in Ireland created a threat to home front unity, and the Battle of Jutland in May showed that Britain no longer had naval superiority, and that the war could not be won at sea.

Haig believed he could capture the entrenched German positions after the heavy bombardment that preceded the advance on 1st July, yet the fighting was into its third month, little ground had been gained and the casualty figures soared.

Home front morale was weakening and war weariness was becoming unavoidable. Some propaganda was needed to divert attention from the realities, and stimulate a new wave of enthusiasm for the war effort.

Considering the context helps us to understand the motive:

These semi-official publications, together with other types of official propaganda, including the film of the Battle of the Somme, are attempts by the authorities to convince the public that the fighting is worthwhile and must be continued. In addition, the magazine company wants to be seen to be playing its part in the war effort. It also wants to attract advertisers and sell its magazines.

To understand the impact it would have on its audience and decide if it is biased we look at the contents:

The magazine uses War Office pictures and information so it contains a great deal of pro-government bias.

The front page is designed to suggest a victory. The title "Sir Douglas Haig's Great Push" is above a photograph of British soldiers searching captured Germans in an orderly and friendly manner.

The words "authoritative work on one of the Greatest Battles in History" and "authentic pictures/by arrangement with the War Office" are to convince the public that it is being informed with authority and honesty on the progress of the battle.

On page 19 the magazine states "Never has the world witnessed preparation on so colossal a scale a preparation which had converted Great Britain into a vast arsenal and a first-class military power", when in fact the British losses on the first day were the greatest to any army on any day of the war.

The title of the magazine, the text and photographs throughout, suggest a glorious and successful push is underway, when, in reality, British casualties on the Somme are enormous and no ground is being gained.

While it is important to examine the contents, it is also necessary to consider what is left out, i.e. the omissions:

The magazine claims - "you see War as it really is: the camera takes in everything and spares nothing"- but there are no pictures of men dying agonising deaths, or British losses. Some of the photographs are graphic and revealing, and the text does include some references to losses, but the magazine does not reveal the huge scale on which they are occurring. There is a photograph of the King inspecting one grave at the battle front, when by that time there were so many dead that orders had been given for mass burials in trench graves.

Like all publications in Britain during the war the magazine is subject to government censorship under the Defence of the Realm Act (DORA), introduced in 1914. The War Office will supply the magazine with only information and photographs that it wants the public to see. As the magazine needs the cooperation of the War Office it is likely to use self-censorship and selective editing to ensure there will be inclusions and omissions that will please the government.

Likewise, the film that is being shown to the public is also subject to censorship. It gives some sense of immediacy but it condenses weeks of horrific fighting into 80 minutes. It is a silent film so it gives no sense of the deafening and devastating bombardments that could induce shell shock.

Although the magazine is useful to historians, when we analyse it we can see that it is not reliable. While it does contain some factual information and actual pictures, they are presented in a way that suggests General Haig's "Great Push" is a great success.

To gain different perspectives of the Battle of the Somme we must examine other sources, both primary and secondary. We would have to ask ourselves the same questions for those sources, but they may contain additional or contradictory information, which will give us insights that we may not gain by using only one source.

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Other sources could include:

A soldier's diary
(Courtesy of S. Falconer)

These following extracts are from an Australian soldier's diary (primary source) and reveal some aspects of the battle that are not found in the semi-official magazine.

We have the perspective of someone who was experiencing the battle in the front line and who is not relying on government cooperation for his information. He is recording his own thoughts and observations for a private audience (himself and his family). He probably does not intend the diary to be read until his return home, or his death. Therefore his words convey some of the reality and tragedy of war in a way that the magazine does not, in spite of its claim that the public 'will see war as it really is'.

However that does not mean that the diary is completely reliable or without bias. As the soldier realises that his family may one day read his account he, too, may be practising some self-censorship. In addition, he is only one soldier in one sector of the battle, and is subject to military regulations, so he does not have a wide knowledge of all details of the battle. Nevertheless it is a useful source.

(Australian divisions began fighting on the Somme three weeks after the first British advance and finished during September when they were ordered to the Ypres front. During their involvement Australian soldiers sustained heavy casualties fighting in the Pozieres sector, an area that was obliterated by the bombardments.)

This extract reveals the impact of the war on civilians in the war zone:

"July 13th  Scarcely a man in the village of military age. Women seem to do all the field work. It's a strange life walking into peoples houses and taking possession."

These extracts reveal the impact of the war on the landscape and on soldiers:

"July 28th  Our position is covering Pozieres. There have been heavy casualties among Australians here.

July 29th  Heavy gun fire all round us and shells bursting in all directions. We are right in the 'Great Push' now. Walked over and viewed the 'Crater' an immense hole 300 feet across by 50 deep. The British tunnelled from a quarter of a mile back and stuck 60 tons of explosives under the spot and then fired it. Am told by an Officer who witnessed the burst that it was a sight of the war. There are plenty of sights to be seen yet in the Crater and Trenches in the shape of dead bodies and portions of them sticking out everywhere, fearful.

July 30th  Heavy casualties coming to our M.O. Many men with nerves completely gone, crying like children with no control of themselves. A man killed a few yards from us. Anybody's turn now.

July 31st Heavy gun and shell fire continually going on, no slacking night or day. Doctors are kept busy and a cemetery has opened between two lines of guns and the pegs are rapidly increasing."

For a German soldier's account we could read All Quiet on the Western Front, by Erich Remarque. It is a simple, yet moving, account which reveals that the ordinary soldier on both sides of the front line shared a common fate during the war.

Secondary sources, such as textbooks and biographies, can be useful to give perspectives which have the advantage of hindsight. They reveal information such as the huge losses incurred during the battle, the inadequate preparation, the terrible conditions, and the small territorial gain. Some question Haig's competency as a commanding officer.

To avoid considering only the views of one side it would be useful to consult works by German historians.

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Evaluating evidence

Trenches then and now.  Each of these photographs was taken in the Somme River area, and each gives a similar visual perspective of a trench. Photo No 1 was taken in 1916. Photo No 2 was taken in 1989 at Beaumont Hamel Memorial Park.

While both are useful, the one that was taken during the war is more valuable evidence because it shows an original trench, not one that has been recreated with concrete. In the original photograph we can see how duck boards helped to keep feet above the waterlogged sections to prevent trench foot, we can see the mud sliding into the trench, and we can sense the desolate realities of trench life that the recreation does not convey as vividly as the original.

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Field evidence

(Photographs - Valda Rigg)

Exploring the area where the fighting took place may make a personal impact in a way that the written word may not. We gain a more immediate understanding of the conditions that all soldiers experienced, the strategies of the battles, and the human cost.

Serre Road Cemetery No 1  There are many cemeteries (including one German cemetery) along the former front lines. They are poignant reminders of the huge loss of life.

Former trenches, now overgrown with grass. The outline of the trench system can still be seen today.

Thiepval Memorial for British soldiers who have no known grave.

Memorial at Villers Bretonneux for Australian soldiers who have no known grave. The names of the dead are inscribed in the stone panels.

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Some outcomes

The losses

These figures are approximate. The actual number cannot be calculated with accuracy.

More

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