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Spartan Society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 BC

Using primary and secondary sources on Sparta

Jeffrey Lumb
Blacktown Girls High School

"If Lacedaimon were ever laid waste and there remained only the foundations of the temples and the public buildings, those born into a world of the far future would find it difficult to believe that the power of Sparta had deserved its reputation".

Thucydides

Outcomes

H1.1	describe and assess the significance of key people, groups, events, institutions, societies and sites within the historical context
H4.1	use historical terms and concepts appropriately
H3.3	analyse and evaluate sources for their usefulness and reliability
H3.1	locate, select and organise relevant information from a variety of sources

Principal Focus:

The investigation of key features of Spartan society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 BC, through a range of archaeological and written sources and relevant historiographical issues.

Students Learn About:

Cultural Life:

Greek writer's views of Sparta: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle, Pausanias, Plutarch

This tutorial assists students to

understand the relevant archaeological and written evidence (primary and secondary) for ancient Spartan society
examine the evidence available and note gaps in the evidence, while building a picture of life in ancient Sparta
assess a range of views and interpretations from ancient and modern sources about the nature of Spartan society
construct coherent notes that explain significant archaeological and historiographical issues relevant to Spartan society.

Written sources

The Spartans themselves were reluctant to disclose information to outsiders. Hence a 'cloud of mystery' developed about Spartan society. This lack of accurate information did not hamper writers in their accounts of Spartan life. Quite the reverse. Some writers were not discouraged by the lack of first-hand evidence about the Spartans; they simply wrote 'creatively' about the Spartans.

So, in many cases, these written sources have raised more questions than they have provided answers.

The reasons for this include:

Successive writers in the ancient world might have been influenced by what had already been written. Not only was myth (or inaccuracy) established, but it was perpetuated as successive writers built on the inaccuracies of previous writers.
Particular preconceptions of an ancient writer might also play a part in the aspects of Spartan life that were highlighted. Thucydides admired Sparta's austerity, or its' ' eunomia' or 'good order'. Xenophon admired Sparta for its military prowess.
In the case of Plato and Aristotle, Sparta was to stand as a sort of prized model, as both set about spreading their own theories of politics and government.

K.H. Kelly in Sparta: Some Myths Ancient and Modern summed up the situation:

"in ancient times hardly any writer interested in Sparta seems to have been depressed by lack of information and...generation after generation of Greeks cheerfully discussed, described and criticised Sparta".

Ancient sources

Click here for a link to a collection of ancient sources relevant to Spartan society.

Click on this link for access to a site maintained by Paul Halsall. It is an excellent source for primary source material on many aspects of ancient Sparta.

These ancient sources have traditionally formed the basis of our knowledge of Spartan society. Here are some of the major ancient authors and the times they were writing in. Clicking on the name links will take you to a site where the writings of that author can be found.

(a) Herodotus Mid 5th Century B.C. (on women in Sparta )

(b) Thucydides Late 5th Century B.C.

(c) Xenophon 4th century B.C.

(d) Plato & Aristotle 4th Century B.C.

(e) Plutarch 1st Century A.D.

(f) Pausanias c. A.D. 150

In addition to these scholars we should also include the Poets. Click here to read more on the poets of ancient Sparta.

(g) Tyrtaeus c. 640 B.C.

Tyrtaeus wrote elegies. In these he inspired the Spartans to regain their lost ideals and military efficiency. To do this he proposed the following:-

eunomia or 'good order'

citizen loyalty

training soldiers to fight without fear

all Spartans to serve the state and demos (people of Sparta).

In essence then, Tyrtaeus saw that the ultimate goal of Spartan life was to raise "Brave men in war".

(h) Alcman Late 7th Century B.C.

(i) Terpander 7th Century B.C.

These poets wrote of (early) Sparta as an outgoing and cultured people who enjoyed imported luxuries in their daily lives.

The ancient sources give this picture of Sparta.

Aristotle was critical of Sparta:

They should not have kept helots while they had hostile neighbours.
Women had too much freedom: they dominated their men.
Women's land ownership reduced the number of full (male) citizens.
The Spartans' concern with war left them with nothing after battle.

Thucydides:

admired the Spartan way of life...but was glad not to be part of it!
admired Sparta's internal strength and self-sufficiency
saw Sparta as an 'out-dated' society...unchanged for some 400 years
accused the Spartans of lack of imagination.

Xenophon :

praised the modesty and obedience of Spartan youth
acknowledged the rationale for Spartan education: good soldiers
enjoyed the fact that youth had respect for their elders and rulers
"If someone were to ask me whether I felt that the laws of Lycurgus still remained unchanged, I could not confidently say yes. I know that in the past the Spartans preferred to stay in Sparta in moderate prosperity rather than expose themselves to the flattery and corruption involved in governing other cities. In the past they were afraid of being proved to have gold, but there are those now who even pride themselves on possessing some. In the past the purpose of the expulsion of foreigners and the ban on foreign travel was to prevent citizens from being infected with idleness by foreigners; now I understand that the apparent leaders of the state are eager to govern foreign cities for the rest of their lives. There was a time when they worked to be worthy of the lead, but now they are far more interested in ruling than in being worthy of their position. This is the reason why, whereas formerly the Greeks used to come to the Spartans and ask them for leadership against reputed wrongdoers, now many are encouraging each other to prevent a revival of Spartan power. There is, however, no cause for surprise that such reproaches are being cast at them; they obviously do not obey either the gods or the laws of Lycurgus." (Xenophon)

Plato:

spoke of the general admiration the other city states felt for Sparta. It seemed to embody the ideals of 'completeness' and 'simplicity'.

Even so, Sparta was considered austere. While the people and their life-style were uncomplicated, their political system was complex.

General Greek opinion:

Sparta was once a progressive society...but over time society and its constitution stagnated...By the 5th century B.C. it was still a collection of farming villages. Looking elsewhere, other city-states had established great cities (e.g. Athens) and politics had 'moved' to democracy...Even if locked in a "time vacuum", Sparta was still admired by many Greeks as a symbol of Greek ideals. It is probably best summed up in the words of Plutarch when he says: " All the Greeks know what is right, but only the Spartans do it properly".

Archaeological sources

Looking at the archaeological record for ancient Sparta, historians have provided new insights, or more accurately, they have given rise to of a revision of much of Spartan history (certainly that history which centred on the ancient written sources).

The studies of L.F. Fitzhardinge, P.A. Cartledge and J.T. Hooker have seen revision of thought on such issues as:

how swift was the introduction of the Spartan Regime (it was not introduced by a wave of the hand by the mystical or mythical Lycurgus)
the role that economics played in the decline of Spartan culture
the exposing of 'Spartan equality' as somewhat of a myth, given the range of the remains of luxury goods excavated in Spartan society.

Some historians, such as A. Andrews, writing as early as 1938, suggested that "the perpetuation of Lycourgos' name was one of the most successful frauds in history".

Even in antiquity there was a questioning of current thought. Plutarch went as far as to suggest that the only way to explain the anomalies in Sparta's development was to suggest that there were, in fact, two Lykourgoi.

Drawing it all together

An effective way to draw together both ancient and modern sources for ancient Sparta is to use a table.

Being able to refer specifically to the sources, especially the ancient sources, and to quote from them is crucial in ancient history. Specific reference to source material helps to build a strong argument.

Part of the table has been completed. The underlined links will help you complete the rest.

Writer	Time period	Views	Evidence (Quotes)
Herodotus	Mid 5th century B.C.	click here for help
Thucydides
Xenophon	4th century B.C.	click here for help
Aristotle		was critical of Sparta
Plutarch	click here for help		"All the Greeks know what is right, but only the Spartans do it properly"
Alcman	click here for help		click here for help

Revision

What does Thucydides mean by his words at the top of the page?
What is K.H. Kelly telling us about some of our sources for ancient Sparta?
What are elegies?
What is meant by the term eunomia? Which ancient writer uses this term?
What did Tyrtaeus see as the ultimate aim of the Spartan system?
In what ways have modern scholars questioned the ancient sources?

Looking further

All of these books are easily obtainable:

Barrow, R.	Sparta, pp 21-38
Bradley, P.	Ancient Greece Using Evidence, pp 52-77
Bury, J. B. & Meiggs, R.	A History of Greece, pp 89-101
Ehrenberg, V.	From Solon to Socrates, pp 28-49
Hennessy, D. (ed.)	Studies in Ancient Greece, pp 57-78
Hurley, T. (et al)	Antiquity 2, pp 39-66
Koutsoukis, A. J.	History of the Ancient World - Ancient Greece, pp 44-50
Lawless, J (ed.)	Societies from the Past - Part 4 Sparta, pp 146-205
Roebuck, C.	The World of Ancient Times, pp 198-203

The following Internet sites are excellent sources on many aspects of ancient Sparta:

Sourcebook of materials on ancient Sparta:
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-sparta.html

A collection of materials on ancient Sparta can be found at the following sites: http://www.laconia.org/gen_info_literature/Web_sites%20all.htm

www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/7849/ancientsources.html

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook07.html#Sparta

http://www.laconia.org/gen_info_literature/Web_sites%20all.htm

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