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Spartan Society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 BC

Social structure and political organisation

Jeffrey Lumb

Blacktown Girls High School

Outcomes

H1.1	describe and assess the significance of key people, groups, events, institutions, societies and sites within the historical context
H2.1	explain historical factors and assess their significance in contributing to change and continuity in the ancient world
H4.1	use historical terms and concepts appropriately
H3.4	explain and evaluate differing perspectives and interpretations of the past
H3.3	analyse and evaluate sources for their usefulness and reliability

Principal Focus:

The investigation of key features of Spartan society to the Battle of Leuctra 371BC, through a range of archaeological and written sources and relevant historiographical issues.

Students learn about:

• Social structure and political organisation:
  • the issue of Lycurgus (the Great Rhetra)
  • roles and privileges of the two kings
  • government: ephorate, gerousia, ekklesia

Content

• Lycurgus - the issue of Lycurgus (the Great Rhetra)
• Ancient sources
• Modern historians
• The constitution - roles and features of the two Kings
• The reforms
• Organisation of Sparta's government: a summary – ( the two kings, ephorate, gerousia, ekklesia )
• Drawing it all together
• Revision
• Looking further

Lycurgus (or Lykourgos)

The issue of Lycurgus (the Great Rhetra)

History records that the architect of the Spartan political system was Lycurgus.

To some he was a man, to others a god. Plutarch wrote a Life of Lycurgus , valuable for its description of Spartan ways, although a long time after the period in question.

Even the Delphic oracle was puzzled, according to Herodotus, .......

"You came, O Lycurgus, beloved to Zeus, and to all the other Olympian Gods to my temple. Like a man or like a god should I welcome you ? But I really think, O Lycurgus, that you are a god."

Delphic Oracle.

Ancient sources

Herodotus, The Histories, 1, 65

Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus

In his Life of Lycurgus, Plutarch (A.D. 50-120), provides us with a detailed account of the reforms attributed to the legendary lawgiver. Plutarch was aware of a number of different opinions concerning the date of Lycurgus' life, but decides on what would be a mid-ninth-century date. Plutarch combined the story of Lycurgus' visit to the shrine of Apollo at Delphi with the tradition that it was he who gave the Spartans a constitution. According to Plutarch, Lycurgus obtained from the oracle of Apollo at Delphi a rhetra, which laid down the constitution that the Spartans should adopt.

Click here to read more about Lycurgus and the Oracle at Delphi.

Xenophon , Spartan Constitution (Click on Xenophon to read more of his writings)

Xenophon, an Athenian writing in the fourth century BC, was exiled from his native city and served in the Spartan army under King Agesilaus in 396-394BC. He was presented by the Spartans with an estate near Olympia and was the Spartan representative at Olympia. His Spartan Constitution, written in about 388, is a valuable source but must be used with caution. Written in a spirit of gratitude to Sparta, it is full of praise for the Spartan constitution and generally uncritical of the system. Above all it reflects fourth century conditions, while asserting the unchangeable and stable nature of the Spartan constitution.

Aristotle, a philosopher and political theorist writing in the 4th century B.C., allows us to see how some people of his time viewed the Spartan constitution very favourably as a balanced and stable blend of different political elements.

Modern historians

N. G. L. Hammond: considers that the reforms were 9th century B.C. work.

G.L. Huxley: considers that the changes took place about 700 B.C.

W. G. Forest: dates the changes to about 670BC and considers that Lycurgus' reforms were part design, part accident.

M. Finley: thinks the changes occurred about 600 B.C.

A. H. M. Jones: considers Lycurgus was "a mythical figure".

K.J. Beloch: considers Lycurgus to have been "a Spartan invention".

A. Andrewes:"The perpetuation of Lykurgos' name was one of the most successful frauds in history."

Modern scholarship, then, has produced a degree of scepticism and doubt that such a reformer actually existed. Ongoing research, especially the study of archaeological sources, has given new insights into the subject.

Some scholars argue that Lycurgus is largely unimportant. In all events the Spartans themselves attributed the institutions of their society to Lycurgus, although it is in fact unlikely that one person at one time can have been responsible for all of them.

The political reforms of Lycurgus were incorporated into the Grand Rhetra:

Assisted by the two kings this "mystical" or "mythical" Lycurgus re-distributed the land and all Spartiati became homoioi (or "equals"). This ideal of equality had been challenged in recent scholarship...archaeological evidence has suggested that amongst the Spartiati there was a considerable degree of "inequality".

The constitution – roles and privileges of the two Kings

The system attributed to Lycurgus was organised so that individual power was closely checked and change by peaceful means very difficult. The fact that there were two kings meant that one could prevent the other from becoming too powerful on his own account.

The two kings were representatives of the two hereditary royal families who were believed to be descended from Herakles: the Agiads and the Eurypontids.

The original powers of the kings were greatly restricted, and they became principally generals. When the army fought outside Sparta, however, one king only was allowed to go as its commander, as the possibility of a disagreement or the loss of both kings was too great a risk.

At home they had some powers but were, in fact, less important than the ephoroi (ephors) or "overseers". These were five magistrates elected annually from the people. Each month the kings and ephoroi exchanged oaths, the kings swearing that they would govern according to the laws, and the ephoroi searing that, as long as the kings obeyed the laws, they would see to it that the kingship was unharmed.

The ephoroi kept a close watch on the kings: two went along on any foreign campaign, and they had the power to call the kings before them to explain their conduct. They could even fine or arrest them.

The ephoroi were generally responsible for the discipline of the state, acting as judges, dealing with foreign ambassadors, presiding over meetings of the council and the assembly. It was they who annually declared war on the helots, and on beginning their years of office they issued a decree that all citizens should “shave their top lips and obey the laws”. It was the ephors who truly wielded real power in Ancient Sparta. This lay, not only in their power with respect to the kings and the helots, but with the ephors' power to call the ecclesia (or apella) together, to decide on the issues that the apella would consider...and if all else failed, their right to over-ride any decisions!

The gerousia (aristocratic council) possessed strong influence in the city. Consisting of the two kings and twenty-eight men over the age of sixty, it was elected for life from certain ancient families, with 30 men in total.

Finally there was the ecclesia (or apella)(assembly or council of citizens), the members of which were the people, or at least adult males. Although the assembly had the right to approve or reject proposals put before it, there was an important law to the effect that "if people make a crooked decision, the kings and elders have the power to withdraw the matter."

The reforms

• A revolution did take place (irrespective of Lycurgus' involvement).
• Plutarch reports that the rhetra, which the reformer obtained by the Delphic Oracle, decreed that Lycurgus should establish a sanctuary to "Zeus and Athena", divide the people into " tribes and obai", and appoint a Gerousia which comprised "30 men including the Kings".
• Herodotus (1, 65) mentions that the reforms also included the introduction of the Ephorate.

The system attributed to Lycurgus

The Lycurgun reforms	Purpose	Effects
The rhetra (The Law) Legend has it that the rhetra was the work of Lycurgus. Modern scholarship casts doubt on the fact that the system came into being at a single point in time. Even more recent research has cast doubt on the existence of Lycurgus at all!	One king led the army when in war while the other remained in Sparta. Each one ensured the other remained loyal. These three bodies (the gerousia, ephorate and apella) combined into a single government.
The two kings were taken from the Agiad and Eurypontid families.	The system of government, then, had elements of monarchy, oligarchy and democracy, with no one group taking precedence (at least in theory) over the other. Evidence suggests the monarchy existed before Lycurgus. The kings claimed descent from Heracles (useful propaganda).	Powers of the kings were limited, especially by the ephors.
The gerouisa consisted of the gerontes (28 Spartan males over the age of 60). These were chosen by merit and included the two hereditary kings. The Gerousia initiated the business for discussion in the Apella.	The gerousia acted as a court to try murder cases and could impose the death penalty, banish the guilty party or impose fines. Real power rested in their power to summon, dismiss or reject legislation of the Apella.	Although the gerontes were meant to be experienced men, they frequently lacked training in government. It has also been suggested that they might often be senile. In any case, they were an ultra-conservative group who could be relied on to maintain the status quo.
The ephors Evidence suggests that there were 5, one from each of the villages. Were elected for one year, with election being open to any Spartan citizen.	Ephors presided over the Apella. They heard civil law cases. They could impeach the kings. They directed the krypteia. Two ephors accompanied the king into battle.	The ephors usurped the power of the other two bodies and were subject to bribery and corruption. (As all Spartan citizens were open to election, the presumption is that the poor ones might be bribed.)
The apella consisted of all citizens (i.e. male Spartiati over the age of 30). It voted by acclamation (i.e. clapping). Had effective power only on matters of war and peace.	The apella voted on proposals of the gerousia and elected ephors and members of the gerousia.	The apella lacked formal training and possessed little real power.

The historian W. G. Forrest (A History of Sparta 950-192 B.C.), in drawing together the revolution which swept Sparta, concludes.

"Lykourgos, then, took what he had found and, partly by accident, partly by design, made a system of it. He found 9,000 men who would have called themselves Spartans and made them citizens; he found Kings, a Gerousia and a demos and he turned them into a constitutional government...." (page 60)

Organisation of Sparta's government: a summary (the two kings, ephorate, gerousia, ekklesia)

Dual monarchy

One King from the Agiad and one from the Eurypontid families
Performed religious duties and led in time of war
After c.500 B.C., only one king went to war
Activities of the kings were watched over by the ephoroi (ephors)
Limited civil powers: adoption, marriage of heiresses & control of public roads
Were supported by the state

Gerousia

"Council of Elders"...was next to the king in power
Comprised 30 members (including the 2 kings) aged 60 years and over
Came from the nobles (if a nobility actually existed)
Elected by the apella for life terms (by public acclamation)
Advised the kings, and acted as a high court of justice
Could veto any unacceptable decision of the apella
Acted as a court of justice in criminal cases (death or exile)

Ephoroi

Five ephors, one from each of the five villages forming Sparta
Duty to watch over the activities of the kings
Served one-year terms only
Were elected by the people
Later role was to represent the people against the rulers
They were responsible for the discipline of the state, education of the young
Dealt with foreign ambassadors
Presided over meetings of the council and apella
It was the ephoroi who, annually, declared war on the helots
The ephoroi also had control of the krypteia
They formed the supreme civil court in Laconia
On beginning their term in office they issued a decree that all citizens should....
" shave their top lips and obey the law"

NOTE: Each month the kings and ephoroi exchanged oaths
The kings swore to govern according to the laws
The ephoroi swore to protect the monarchs if they did so.

Apella - ekklesia

also known as the ekklesia
"The Assembly" was open to all male citizens (over 30)
Met monthly (at the full moon); elected officials and determined foreign policy
Did not debate, but listened to the kings and ephoroi
Ephoroi chaired the meeting of the apella
Elected the gerousia and ephoroi by public acclamation
Decisions of the apella could be overridden by the gerousia
Women, the perioikoi, and helots were not represented.

Drawing it all together

Mind maps are a helpful way to simplify information and aid recall.

Try your hand at completing the following mind map on Lycurgus. Clicking on underlined words will assist you.

Plutarch	Xenophon	Herodotus
	LYCURGUS
The rhetra A rhetra is something that is spoken. The Spartans believed that the oracle at Delphi gave to Lycurgus their system of government		Modern scholars
	The reforms

Revision

Click on underlined words for help

1. Who was Lycurgus?
2. What do ancient sources say about Lycurgus?
3. What do we mean by the statement: "modern scholarship has produced a degree of scepticism and doubt that such a reformer actually existed"?
4. What was the grand rhetra?
5. What powers were held by the ephors or the ephorate ?
6. How did one become a member of the apella?
7. Who comprised the gerousia? What was the function of this body?
8. What was the significance of the kings claiming descent from Heracles?
9. Complete the following table:

Term	Explanation/ significance	Duties/responsibilities
Dual monarchy
Gerousia
Gerontes
Ephoroi
Apella
Ekklesia

Looking further

All of these books are easily obtainable:

The following Internet sites are excellent sources on many aspects of Ancient Sparta:

Sourcebook of materials on ancient Sparta:
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-sparta.html

A collection of materials on ancient Sparta: http://www.laconia.org/gen_info_literature/Web_sites%20all.htm

www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/7849/ancientsources.html

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook07.html#Sparta

http://www.laconia.org/gen_info_literature/Web_sites%20all.htm

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